The Darker Side of Shakespeare

In William Shakespeare’s play, â€Å"A Midsummer Night’s Dream†, the crowd is observer to an a lot darker Shakespearian satire than a significant number of Shakespeare’s different works. The play starts with a young lady by the name of Hermia is conflicted between wedding the man that her dad has decided for her or confronting passing for challenging her father’s wishes. The crowd sees dull amusingness through Puck’s jokes in satisfying his Oberon. The two appreciate pulling mean pranks on guiltless characters they go over, clearly showing a dim comical inclination. Shakespeare likewise fuses dull enchantment into â€Å"A Midsummer Night’s Dream† with the pixies in the woodland. While pixies are ordinarily depicted as accommodating, honest animals, Shakespeare’s pixies appear to be just to make evil and disorder. Additionally depicted in this play is the clouded side of adoration and sentiment. The haziness of the play is evident from the main page through the last page, clearly showing Shakespeare’s darker expectations for this play. The most evident component of â€Å"A Midsummer Night’s Dream† is the component of dull cleverness. Oberon’s mignon, Puck, is continually engaging Oberon in any capacity conceivable. By and large, this amusement fuses pulling pranks on clueless characters. Puck and Oberon appear to have a darker comical inclination, appreciating seeing others in messes or shame. From the get-go in the play, Puck discusses the tricks that he has been known to play, telling the crowd that, â€Å"†¦ once in a while hide I in a gossip’s bowl, in very similarity of a simmered crab, and when she drinks, against her lips I sway and on her shriveled dewlap pour the beer. The most shrewd auntie, telling the saddest story, now and again for three-footrest mistaketh me; at that point slip I from her bum, down topples she, and â€Å"tailor† cries, and falls into a cough† (Act 2, Scene 1, Lines 47-54). By transforming himself into a crab and hiding in a bowl of lager to alarm a lady, and causing himself to give off an impression of being a stool so when a lady sits on him, he can make her fall, Puck makes it evident that he thinks about only engaging himself and his lord. One case of this darker funniness is when Puck changes Bottom’s head into that of an ass. As though this single stunt isn’t sufficiently engaging, Puck at that point does magic over Titania causing the pixie sovereign to experience passionate feelings for Bottom. At the point when Puck discloses to Oberon how the stunt played out, Oberon is clearly content with the outcomes, revealing to Puck that, â€Å"This drops out better than I could devise† (Act 3, Scene 2, Line 35). The connection among Oberon and Puck is one like a King and Court Jester during medieval occasions. Puck exists just to engage Oberon, and it is exceptionally evident that the two have an a lot darker comical inclination than others. The second component of â€Å"A Midsummer Night’s Dream† that shows a conspicuous obscurity is the enchantment and pixies inside the play. Commonly, pixies are believed to be acceptable animals who are useful and honest. In any case, the pixies that Shakespeare has imagined are an a lot darker variety than what the crowd would typically anticipate. The pixies that exist in this play are increasingly known for making a feeling of turmoil. The most noticeable pixie in the play is Puck, the cheat of the backwoods. We see the darker side of the enchantment that Puck rehearses on a few events all through the play. One of the more evident instances of Puck’s dim enchantment is the point at which he chooses to give up the Athenian youths of their relationship inconveniences. Puck utilizes enchantment to make Demetrius begin to look all starry eyed at Helena. This is a darker spell since it meddles with the capacity of Demetrius to genuinely show choice and love who he needs. Puck finds the Athenian he is to provided reason to feel ambiguous about the spell in the woodland, â€Å"When thou wakest, let love preclude; Sleep his seat on thy eyelid: So alert when I am gone† (Act 2, Scene 2, Lines 67-68). During the time spent â€Å"helping† the youthful darlings with this adoration triangle, Puck throws the spell on an inappropriate Athenian man. The arrangement reverse discharges, and it is Lysander who is made to charm Helena. As Puck and Oberon watch their shenanigans unfurl, Puck is clearly engaged by the disarray that he has caused. Puck tells Oberon, â€Å"Shall we their affectionate expo see? Master, what tricks these humans be!† (Act 3, Scene 2, Lines 115-116). The third component of Shakespeare’s play that fuses a darker inclination is that of affection and connections. This is generally obvious in the relationship that exists among Titania and Oberon. While most comedies are loaded with adoration and enthusiasm, Shakespeare puts a dim accentuation on connections in â€Å"A Midsummer Night’s Dream†. The marriage of Titania and Oberon is tossed into disorder over a changeling that Titania has taken under her consideration. Due to Titania’s activities, Oberon is in a wrath and basically attempting to seek retribution on her. This takes on a dull component when Oberon urges Puck to pull a prank on her, subsequent in Titania falling incidentally infatuated with Bottom. Sadly for the pixie sovereign, Bottom’s head has been changed into that of an ass. Puck takes extraordinary take pleasure in his strange love association, notwithstanding, saying, â€Å"When at that time, so it happened, Titania waked and straightway adored an ass† (Act 3, Scene 2, Lines 33-34). The crowd sees an alternate sort of connection among Titania and Oberon †one in which Oberon clearly should consistently be â€Å"in charge†. By not permitting Oberon to have control of the changeling, she has clearly tossed their relationship out of equalization. It appears to the crowd that Titania is relied upon to twist to Oberon’s wishes consistently. The crowd is presented to the darker side of Titania in her fight with Oberon. At the point when the two meet coincidentally in the forested areas, Titania is incensed with Oberon for intruding on the pixie moves that Titania and her pixies participate in. Titania’s darker side is revealed in her allegations to her better half, â€Å"The bull hath subsequently stretch'd his burden futile; The cultivator lost his perspiration, and the green corn; Hath decayed ere his childhood attain'd a whiskers; The overlay stands void in the suffocated field; And crows are fatted with the murrion flock† (Act 2, Scene 1, Lines 78-82). Titania’s word decision alone has a dull undertone, and she clarifies that the unsettling influence of the pixie move will have dim ramifications for other people. Shakespeare’s parody, â€Å"A Midsummer Night’s Dream† leaves the crowd reeling from a feeling of haziness inside the play. This play is certifiably not a normal parody in that huge numbers of the comedic components are darker than different plays in a similar sort. Shakespeare shows the crowd the darker side of amusingness through the communications among Oberon and his hireling, Puck. The component of dim enchantment likewise advances into the play, through the riotous domain of the pixies in the timberland, changing the normal job of a pixie recorded as a hard copy. Finally, Shakespeare makes his crowd mindful of the dimness that exists inside the different connections in the play. Practically the entirety of the darlings in this play have a darker component to their connections. Shakespeare, through various characters, interests the crowd with a conspicuous interest with the darker side of the most well-known components of his play. Works Cited Shakespeare, William. A Midsummer Night's Dream. New York, NY: Bantam Books, 1980. Â

J.K.Tyres Analysis

J.K.Tyres Analysis Official rundown A little, genuine and committed advance towards the satisfaction of my obligations and obligations guaranteed me a mammoth jump to collect information and genuine introduction to business throughout my late spring preparing period. My first experience of corporate world began with large casing organization J.K.Tyres, a division of J.K.Industries. The tasks given to me manages fitment pattern, piece of the pie alongside shoppers observation for J.K.Tyres in truck tires portion. The territory designated to me was Ghaziabad and Meerut and the time term in which we finished our task was from tenth May to 24th June. The examination, which was conveyed, was a greater amount of enlightening exploration consequently had an arranged approach. For suitable outcomes information assortment technique is totally fundamental, in this task I need to rely on essential information, so keeping this in my psyche I gathered the information through a lot of poll and with the assistance of perception strategy to get the precise information and time to time I made the summery of gathered information so all the pieces of information are accumulated at a solitary spot. Individual meetings (with poll) of the client are taken so as to get their own free perspectives. I have taken an example of 230 trucks for realizing the fitment pattern and I have attempted to cover the whole client, in the process I met with 90 transporters. In information examination part different measurable apparatuses like pie bar graphs are utilized for similar investigation and accommodation in understanding the information to make the information livelier Organization PROFILE â€Å"Excellence comes not from negligible words or systems. It originates from a desire to endeavor and convey the best. Mentality that says, when it is sufficient, improve it. It is a perspective that comes just from a force within.† H.S. SINGHANIA J.K.Tyres a division of JK enterprises is a leader organization under the umbrella of JK association. The appearance of JK association on the mechanical scene of India nearly synchronizes, with the start of a period of modern mindfulness an undertaking for independence and the setting of a powerful Indian Industry. This was path back in the center of the nineteenth century. Furthermore, the rest that followed is history. VISION OF THE COMPANY To turn into the most appreciated organization in India focused on greatness Fundamental belief JK association has been a herald in the monetary and social progression of India. It generally planned for making openings for work for a large number of compatriots and to give top notch item. It has endeavored to make India independent by spearheading the creation of various modern and purchaser items, by embracing the most recent innovation just as building up its own expertise. It has additionally under taken modern endeavor in a few different nations. JK association is a relationship of mechanical and business organizations and magnanimous trusts. Its part organizations, utilizing about 50,000 people are occupied with the assembling of an assortment of items and in various fields of business. Trusts are given to advancing mechanical specialized and clinical research instruction strict qualities and furnishing better living and amusement offices with the soul of social cognizance highest in the brains of J.K. association and subsequently it is focused on the reason for human turn of events. Today J.K. association, and relationship of modern and business organizations and magnanimous trusts, keeps on developing to more prominent statures under the stewardship of its leader, Shri Hari Shankar Singhania The important business of JK association incorporates tire, paper, concrete, medications and pharmaceuticals, agri. Hereditary qualities, dairy and food items sound attractive tapes, sugar, beautifiers, woolen materials, steel, designing, material taking care of framework, and so on. The gathering other than having a reliable record of development and broadening has gained notoriety for quality for every one of its items and a large portion of its items appreciate an initiative status in their particular market sections. To adapt up to the interest in the market the majority of the organizations in JK association are guaranteed for worldwide quality frameworks like ISO 9001,ISO 1401 and QS 9000. JK INDUSTRIES LTD. J.K. Enterprises is a union corporate element that is significant of greatness, expansion and spearheading new advancements. A piece of J.K. Association, which positions among the top private gatherings in India. J.K. Enterprises is focused on independence and follows an ethic that sees clients fulfillment as a file of accomplishments. Throughout the years the organization has extended and expanded its business portfolio. It has formed into a multi item, multi-area corporate element containing following business division. Foundation Gathering organizations Straw and JK Synthetic advanced JK Industries, which have a place with Shri Laxmipaty Singhania group of the J.K. Gathering, in 1951. It was at first occupied with overseeing office business. Assembling exercises started with dispatching of a 0.4mn tires and cylinders plant, in 1977 at Jaykaygarm, Rajasthan, in specialized tie up with general tire worldwide Co., U.S.A, for maker of nylon inclination and outspread tires. JKI was the first household maker of spiral tires. The limit later expanded to 0.625mn tires. The Rajasthan plant work issues in the past limit usage levels have been low. In 1981, another processing plant was set up at Banmore, close Gwalior, M.P for the maker of 0.6mn tires, limit has been step by step expanded in both the plants and right now JKI has a consolidated limit of 2.13mn tires. In FY90, it set up JKI agri-hereditary qualities, to technique, process and conveys half breed and high yielding seeds of grains, Oilseeds and heartbeats under the brand name of J.K. Seeds. In FY91, it set up J K Pharmachem, a JV with TIDCO for the assembling of Penciling. It has additionally set up an exchanging arm by the name of J K Global, which bargains in a scope of merchandise including agro items, cowhide item, materials and marine item. In FY12/96, the companys pharmaceutical business was rebuilt and hived off to JK Pharmaceuticals Ltd Presentation ABOUT Tires Tire is an irreplaceable piece of our vehicle and should be picked and cared for with care. The wheel was concocted more than 20,000 years prior. Early wheels were typically produced using wood and as these were not adaptable, the ride was amazingly hard. In 1939, CHARLES GOODYEAR found the culcatisation procedure, which gave elastic its versatile properties. In 1845, R.W. THOMPSON recorded a patent for flexible; air filled belt of elastic ascents texture and cowhide. He had incredible any expectations of his creation getting fruitful, yet no one was persuaded that one could ride on air; Thompson was tragically compelled to desert his thoughts. In 1888, JHON BOYD DUNLOP reexamined the pneumatic tire and recorded a patent guaranteeing simple activity over harsh streets, resistance from vibration and sped up vehicle. Throughout the year, a few techniques were attempted to keep the expanded pneumatic tire fixed to the wheel. By the 1920s most tire had steel wire beading, which permitted a tire to remain immovably fitted to the wheel edge. Advancement was moderate and the early tire had a grieved existence, a portion of the basic issues were punctures track division, splitting, tearing and even victories. Since tire went on for just two or three thousand kilometers, the expense of substitution additionally represent an enormous piece of costs. Early tires were for the most part white since they took their shading from the fortifying specialist zinc oxide. It was not until carbon dark was seen as the best fortifying operator that tire become dark. In 1948, MICHELIN made a most critical commitment by presenting the spiral tire, which was to impact tire plan everywhere throughout the world. Radials offered a lot of unrivaled hold in any case, the rede was unforgiving and they additionally tended to lose grasp out of nowhere once the constraints of grip were crossed. Interestingly, the cross-utilize tire lost its grasp, in a slow way empowering the driver to make restorative move. At that point another age of outspread tire developed, in which the belts were made of rayon, which being increasingly adaptable, forestalled unexpected loss of hold. The advancement of the outspread tire realized a great deal of changes. For the initial 60 years, the tire business had not had the option to create a tire that satisfied its not insignificant rundown of prerequisite. Great quality was accomplished distinctly at the expense of guiding reaction; comparably additional grasp brought about quicker wear and a shorter life. The spiral tire changed this; its structure was with the end goal that each piece of it could be planned autonomously. The track, sidewalls, and so on could have a different development and they could be produced using various materials. New materials, rubbers compound, engineered polymers, producing techniques, all have brought about present day tire getting progressively solid, tough, more secure and nearly upkeep free. Actually, advanced tire are acceptable to such an extent that the majority of us underestimate these and don't try giving them the second look. Anyway it is significant that we improve. THE ORIGIN OF WHEEL Well off honorable men propelling himself through 1820s London on a hobbyhorse would have utilized his muscles similarly as effectively as a messenger evading todays traffic on a trail blazing bicycle. The account of bike innovation has been one of going quicker for a similar exertion, scientists have found. Alberto Minetti, of Manchester Metropolitan University, and partners have been taking a gander at the work expected to impel various bikes of various rates. The bikes extended from the diversion horse a costly toy from the 1820s which riders kicked alongside their legs, velocipedes with pedals fixed to the front wheel, through to chain-driven pattern of the 1880s that look a lot of like todays. The fundamental advantage of cycling rather than running or strolling, the specialists found, is that the riders appendages no longer bear their weight, thus their endeavors can be given to impetus. Indeed

Argumentative Essay Topics Without Research

Argumentative Essay Topics Without ResearchArgumentative essay topics without research. Argumentative essays can be designed around a number of different elements, however you do need to have some sort of research and background information to build the argument. Without any real basis, you are opening up a lot of possibilities that you could have avoided.The first question most people ask is whether or not they should actually read up on something before beginning an argumentative essay. The fact is that there is nothing worse than starting to write your argument only to find out you don't know anything about it. You may have read some books in order to prepare yourself for the topic you are writing about, but even if they had prepared you for a particular subject you had no idea of, you still wouldn't know enough about it to really be able to write well.If you are planning on doing an argumentative essay, you should consider having a bit of background knowledge about it. You may fi nd it helpful to read other people's opinions about the topic so that you have a better understanding of the subject. This should go a long way in making sure that you are getting the point across well without having too much research, but you will never get around reading the topic thoroughly.The first part of a good argumentative essay is the introductory part. This will be the section that explains your topic to the reader in the most engaging and readable way possible. If you do not have the slightest idea about what the topic is about, you should start by learning about it, if you can find resources that will help you get started.Once you have the key points down, you should then move on to developing the argument. This is where you start to look at the different arguments and opinions that are available for the topic. There are many opinions and examples you can use to prove your point.Once you have looked at all the different opinions you will be able to narrow down your topi c to one or two that are particularly compelling. This is where you begin your argument. It may be that you disagree with them or you just may not understand how they came to their own conclusions, but you should still be able to make a strong argument.To make this argument as strong as possible, you will need to combine various arguments into one. This is where you put all the different opinions that you have looked at into one concise statement and make sure you make an interesting point to your readers. You may even have many different points to make, but you will need to put them all into one statement in order to make them stand out.When you are writing an argumentative essay, you can start with just about any topic. However, you need to remember that you will need to base your argument on research before you can put it into a solid argument that will hold up in court.

Essay on terrorism - 1945 Words

Terrorism Imagine a clear blue, sunlit morning; the most beautiful day you can recall. Imagine waking up from an amazing dream of a clear horizon. Imagine putting on your new fresh suit, to start your new job. Imagine having that extra hop in your step as you leave your front door, your mind anxiously awaiting the adventure of a new beginning to an amazing day. Then, imagine not getting to where you needed to be. Not because you fell victim to a traffic jam or missed the bus, but because you were a victim of a terrorist act - an innocent victim, whose life was cut short by terrorism. Shattered dreams and lives are just some of the many effects that terrorism can bring about. Just how different is each human than another? Anatomically†¦show more content†¦For this purpose, the terrorist organizations exploit diverse media venues in order to advance their interests (Sowell). Terrorism’s function is to instill fear in as many people as possible promoting change. Terrorists use the media to further extend the fear in everyone. â€Å"Scaring as many people as possible is the true just in terror† (Sowell). The media spreads confusion that disrupts a whole society. Terrorism is used as a tool of violence to create a climate of fear in a population and thereby bring out a particular political object (â€Å"Terrorism†). â€Å"The purpose of terrorism is to get the most bang for your buck with such limited resources† (Sowell). The media does the work for terrorists. There have been many attacks on the United States to this day including the first attack on the World Trade Center, The Oklahoma bombing, and other attacks on U.S. embassies around the world. The deadliest attack ever was the attack on September 11, 2001. This attack consisted of four planes that were hijacked by suicidal terrorists. The terrorists crashed two planes into the World Trade Center, one into each tower. The third plane was crashed into the Pentagon and the forth crashed into a field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. During this attack, 266 people died on the planes and thousands more died in and around the buildings (â€Å"Info War†). This, however, wasShow MoreRelatedTerrorism : Terrorism And Terrorism1326 Words   |  6 Pagesallowing terrorism to be successful and continue. Terrorists gain power through the common, innocent people they attack. How the world responds to terrorist attacks determines whether or not terrorism will cease. The common people’s r esponse to terrorism, the interest of the state, and the media’s role in terrorism all aide to terrorism’s success and its continuation in the future. How people willingly choose to respond to terrorist attacks defines terrorism and determines if terrorism will continueRead MoreTerrorism : Terrorism And Terrorism1035 Words   |  5 PagesOver the past Century, terrorism has advanced from random killings to enormous plans for terrorist groups. To understand terrorism you must first define it. Terrorism as we all know it is hard to define and understand, and has many different definitions as it is used widely. The word terrorism stems from the word terror, which means to instill fear in. People become terrorists when they take the actions towards instilling fear and terror upon people to prove a certain point or agenda. Some terroristsRead MoreTerrorism : Terrorism And Terrorism1626 Words   |  7 PagesTerrorism can be categorized as â€Å"the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as means to create terror, or fear, to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim (Fortna).† Although there is no formal definiti on of terrorism, we typically associate the words terrorism and terrorists with acts of violence that are used unlawfully to intimidate in pursuance of political gain. Terrorists do not act at random, but rather use violence to maximize on fear and publicity with a specific goal inRead MoreTerrorism : Terrorism And Terrorism1126 Words   |  5 PagesTerrorism Have you ever had a fear for your family, your town, your country, or your world. How about the fear to have everything taken from you, destroyed, and not caring if it has hurt you or not? What about your fear and pain is, and can be someone else’s happiness? The fear of you being terrorized? That is terrorism. Someone else bringing fear and terrorizing you. That is a terrorist’s goal. Terrorism is common and is very difficult to stop. The government promises protection for the peopleRead MoreTerrorism And Terrorism : Terrorism1231 Words   |  5 Pages Terrorism is a common term used in the media and news everyday, especially in the United States. We are in a constant battle against ‘terrorism’, â€Å"Counterterrorism has to be woven into the everyday workings of every department. It should be included on the agenda of every meeting†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kelling Bratton, 2006). Terrorism and How to Respond All terrorism is criminal but not all criminals are terrorists. Terrorism unlike most crimes has a political agenda behind it. Many terrorists are involved withRead MoreTerrorism : Terrorism And Terrorism851 Words   |  4 PagesTerrorist attacks are major threats that could occur in any nation. Terrorism is one of those things that can happen at any time. It will strike in small, medium and large cities. Although we will never be able to remove all risk from terrorism, we can definitely reduce the risk through hazard mitigation and disaster preparedness (GBRA, 2011). To better understand terrorism we need to know what it is. Terrorism can be defined as the use of force or violence against persons or property in violationRead MoreTerrorism : Terrorism And Terrorism1377 Words   |  6 PagesTerrorism in Sudan In the past, Sudan had been designated as a State Sponsor of Terrorism regarding support for international terrorist groups. However, Sudan has changed its approach ever since the 9/11 attacks has been aiding the United States in diminishing the pervasiveness of terrorist groups in Sudan, and in the world. Recently, Sudan has remained cooperative with the United States in its war on counter terrorism. Sudan has taken many preventive measures to keep these terrorist groups outRead MoreThe Effects Of Terrorism On Terrorism And Terrorism944 Words   |  4 PagesEffects of Terrorism â€Å"The history of terrorism is a history of well-known and historically significant individuals, entities, and incidents associated, whether rightly or wrongly, with terrorism,† (History of Terrorism). The history of terrorism is a long bloody road. One of the bloodiest of acts of terrorism in the early years, was the reign of terror. In which, the Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, executed 40,000 people. Newspapers coined the word â€Å"Terrorism† as a way of describing RobespierreRead MoreTerrorism Between Terrorism And Terrorism1207 Words   |  5 PagesQuestion † What trends are evident in terrorism over the past 5 years? How have these trends impacted on the ways in which counter terrorism has responded in the Australian context? Introduction Terrorism poses a serious security challenge to the Australia and globally as it prevalence has increased over a decade although less attacks occur in the Western nations. The purpose of this assignment is to examine what trends and terrorist tactics are evident internationally over the past 5 years andRead MoreTerrorism Between Terrorism And Terrorism2012 Words   |  9 PagesTerrorism has played a brutal and alarming role in societies across the world. Many nations have been confronted with the need to develop solutions in the wake of tragedies caused by terrorism. Unfortunately, terrorist organizations are still operating and terrorist acts have continued. Many questions that have still gone unanswered despite careful study, but governments are finding some relief when collaborating with anti-terrorism organizations (Fischer, 2002). Terrorists have struck almost everywhere

How to Teach the Present Perfect Continuous

The present perfect continuous form is often confused with the present perfect. Indeed, there are many instances in which the present perfect continuous can be used as well as the present perfect. For example: Ive worked here for twenty years. OR Ive been working here for twenty years.Ive played tennis for twelve years. OR Ive been playing tennis for twelve years. The main emphasis in the present perfect continuous is on expressing how long the current activity has been happening. Its best to stress that the present perfect continuous form is used for shorter periods of time to express how long that particular action has been taking place. Ive been writing for thirty minutes.Shes been studying since two oclock. In this manner, youll help students understand that the present perfect continuous is used to express the length of a current action. Compare this to cumulative length for which we tend to use the present perfect, although the present perfect continuous can be used. Introducing the Present Perfect Continuous Start by Speaking About the Length of Current Actions Introduce the present perfect continuous by asking students how long theyve been studying in the current class on that day. Extend this to other activities. Its a good idea to use a magazine with photos and ask questions about how long the person in the photo has been doing a particular activity. Length of Current Activity Heres an interesting photo. Whats the person doing? How long has the person been doing XYZ?What about this one? He looks like hes getting ready for a party. I wonder if you can tell me how long hes been getting ready for the party. Result of Activity Another important use of the present perfect continuous is to explain what has been happening that has caused a present result. Stating results and asking questions are effective in teaching this use of the form. His hands are dirty! What has he been doing?Youre all wet! What have you been doing?Hes tired. Has he been studying for a long time? Practicing the Present Perfect Continuous Explaining the Present Perfect Continuous on the Board Use a timeline to illustrate the two principal uses of the present perfect continuous. With such a long string of helping verbs, the present perfect continuous can be a bit confusing. Make sure that students understand the construction by providing a structural chart like the one below: Subject have been verb(ing) objects He has been working for three hours.We havent been studying for long. Repeat for the negative and interrogative forms as well. Make sure students understand that the verb have is conjugated. Point out that questions are formed with How long ... for the length of an activity, and What have you ... for explanations of current results. How long have you been sitting there?What have you been eating? Comprehension Activities Its a good idea to compare and contrast both the present perfect and present perfect continuous when first teaching this tense. At this point in their studies, students should be able to handle working with two related tenses. Use lessons that focus on the differences to help them distinguish usage. Quizzes testing present perfect or perfect continuous use also help students become familiar with the two tenses. Present perfect and continuous dialogues can also help with practicing the differences. Also, make sure to review non-continuous or stative verbs with students. Challenges With the Present Perfect Continuous The main challenge students will face with the present perfect continuous is understanding that this form is used to focus on shorter lengths of time. I find its a good idea to use a common verb such as teach to illustrate the difference. For example: Ive taught English for many years. Today, Ive been teaching for two hours. Finally, students may still have difficulties with the use of for and since as time expressions with this tense.

Is Willy Loman a Tragic Hero in Death of Salesman

Willy Loman’s character in Death of a Salesman portrays him as a tragic hero. Willy Loman continued to want his recognition and his reputation but never forgets about his family. These characteristics describe him as a tragic hero in Death of a Salesman. Willy Loman’s tragic flow leads him to purse the idea that reputation in society has more relevancies in life than knowledge and education to survive in the business. His grand error of wanting recognition drove him crazy and insane and lead to his tragic death. Willy’s hubris makes him feel extremely proud of what he has, when in reality he has no satisfaction with anything in his life. Willy Loman’s sons did not reach his expectations, as a father but he still continued to brag about†¦show more content†¦He also takes pride in his job as a salesman. He continually argued with his wife about his job and claims that he’s a very important man in his business as a salesman. When he argues he exclaims , â€Å"They don’t need me in New York. I’m Vital in England.† ,(Shmpoo) making his point across that he’s an essential man to his career and he’s very proud of it. He’s always insisting he’s critical t o his business. In other senses he has excessive pride by rejecting the job that Charley offers him and because of his inflated pride it leads him to think he’s well-liked by everyone when even charley admits not to like him himself. He has pride within himself because he has the idea in his mind that he’s a great salesman and when people repealed that he’s no good at his job he argues and makes his point across that he’s in fact a great salesman. In the play Death of a salesman several people tell him that he’s no good at what he does, including he gets fired from his own job because his boss thinks that he’s uncap able of doing his own job and he also thinks that he’s going insane and could take some time off work for himself . As the story goes on he realizes that his kids aren’t what he has expected them to grow up to, as soon as he sees Bernard all grown up and has made of himself a good family he questions himself where did he go wrong in educating his own kids. He wonders why happy could never reach as much success like Bernard , when in fact when younger he pickedShow MoreRelated Willy Loman as Tragic Hero of Death of a Salesman Essay1519 Words   |  7 PagesWilly Loman as Tragic Hero of Death of a Salesman       Willy Loman, the title character of the play, Death of Salesman, exhibits all the characteristics of a modern tragic hero. This essay will support this thesis by drawing on examples from Medea by Euripedes, Poetics by Aristotle, Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, and Shakespeares Julius Caesar, while comments by Moss, Gordon, and Nourse reinforce the thesis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Death of Salesman, by Arthur Miller, fits the characteristics of classicRead MoreEssay Death of a Salesman, Tragic Hero. Willy Loman.1503 Words   |  7 PagesTo what extent can Willy Loman be considered a tragic hero according to Aristotle’s rules? Arthur Miller presents his play ‘Death of a Salesman’ in the ancient form of a tragedy. Aristotle has defined his idea of the ‘perfect’ tragedy in his text, ‘Poetics’ (350 BC).Here he suggests that the protagonist must fall from an elevated social standing as a result of a â€Å"fatal flaw† within the character; the fall from the main character creates resolution to the play which is seen as just; finally, AristotleRead MoreDeath of a Salesman: the Tragic Anti-Hero of Willy Loman1008 Words   |  5 PagescenterbA Success at Failure: The Tragic Anti-hero of Willy Loman/b/center br brA hundred years from now, it will not matter what type of car I drove, or what kind of house I lived in, or the amount of money I made, yet the world might be changed because I made a positive difference in the life of a child. This increasingly popular statement raises a question for those who might hear it: how does one impact a child s life for the better? A most obvious response would be to simply beRead More Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller: Willy Loman is NOT a Tragic Hero987 Words   |  4 PagesDeath of a Salesman by Arthur Miller: Willy Loman is NOT a Tragic Hero In The Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, it is argued weather that Willy Loman is a tragic hero. There are cases for both classifications of Willy. By definition, a tragic hero is a person born into nobility, is responsible for their own fate, endowed with a tragic flaw, and doomed to make a serious error in judgment. The tragic hero eventually falls from great esteem. They realize they have made an irreversible mistakeRead More Willy Loman as a Tragic Hero in Death of a Salesman Essay examples919 Words   |  4 PagesWilly Loman as Tragic Hero in Death of a Salesman Willy Loman, the troubled father and husband in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman, can be classified as a tragic hero, as defined by Aristotle in his work, Poetics. In Aristotles Poetics, a tragic hero was defined as one who falls from grace into a state of extreme despair. Willy, as we are introduced to him, becomes increasingly miserable as he progresses from a dedicated, loving father, though not without flaws, into a suicidal, delusionalRead MoreWilly Loman as a Tragic Hero in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman1218 Words   |  5 PagesWilly Loman as a Tragic Hero in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman Should Willy Loman of Arthur Millers classic, Death of a Salesman be regarded as a tragic hero, or merely a working-class, socially inadequate failure? Described by Miller as a self-destructive, insecure anti-hero, it seems almost impossible for Loman to be what is known as a tragic hero in the classical sense, but with the inclusion of other factors he maybe a tragic hero, at least in the modernRead More Willy Loman, Redefining the Tragic Hero in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman1065 Words   |  5 PagesWilly Loman, Redefining the Tragic Hero in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman      Ã‚  Ã‚   The events in the life of Willy Loman in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman are no doubt tragic, yet whether or not he can be considered a tragic hero in a traditional sense is a topic requiring some discussion. Aristotle set the criteria for qualities a character must possess in order to be considered a tragic hero. 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It expresses how the old man’s life comes crumbling down with his last few attempts to make some of his dream reality and help his family in debt. Now people are debating weather Willy loman fits the right characteristics to be classified as a tragic hero. A tragic hero is someone who makesRead MoreHow Is Willy Loman A Tragic Hero727 Words   |  3 Pages The tragic hero referenced throughout the essay Tragedy and a Common Man is Willy Loman from Death of a Salesman. What Arthur Miller means by tragic hero is a protagonist in a play or a different form of filmography who is a subject for tragedy in its highest sense. The essay refers to a character who is ready to lay down his life to secure his personal dignity. The next reference to this character is society the struggle to gain a rightful posi tion. The last proof of this is how Miller talks about

Organizational free essay sample

Table of Contents Introduction Organizational culture is an important part of any organization, for this is the principles a company stand for. Without a strong, stable culture, an organization is sure to fail sooner than later. I will now discuss the subjects briefly mentioned in assignment 1. 1. The organizational culture of the organization where I work: 1. 1. A) Definition of Organizational culture and 4 types of cultures. Organizational culture refers to the shared values, norms, visions, symbols, beliefs, habit, working language between people sharing a working environment. There are, according to (Greenberg, 2011) four types of organizational cultures that exist. (Control) Hierarchy culture: These are typically large, bureaucratic corporations where smooth production, without wasted time is important. Stability, control, internal focus, standardization and integration are key principles to this system. Leaders in such a system should organize, monitor and coordinate the people and process thoroughly. (Compete) Market culture: These organizations are also concerned with stability and control, but rather than focusing on internal factors, they focus on external. This system is concerned with competition. They look at all the other organizations competing in the same market and then focus on their relationships- or transactions with suppliers, customers, contractors, unions, legislators, consultants, regulators etc. They believe that they’ll achieve success by focusing on effective relations (external). (Collaborate) Clan culture: Inward focus is important, same as the hierarchy system, however clan cultures emphasizes flexibility rather than control and rigidness. At such organizations, the well-being of workers comes first. It is said that people working in a clan-cultural environment feel related to their co-workers due to the warm, friendly nature. (Create) Adhocracy: This culture refers to the opposite of bureaucracy, focusing on flexibility and the external environment. It’s all about opportunities, problem-solving and outcome. These type of companies should always be up to date regarding development and technology. Typical example of such organizations is software-developing companies. The culture of the organization where I work: The organizational culture at my company is the Create or Adhocracy culture (defined above) According to Waterman’s theory (cited in Greenberg, 2011) an Adhocracy culture goes beyond the ordinary bureaucratic lines to capture opportunities, solve problems and get results. In my organization, we focus on innovation and creativity. Team work is essential, because software engineers have to split up the work due to the work-load. 2. How are new employees accommodated in the organization? Accommodation can refer to special needs of some employees or just taking account and respecting all members’ race, ethnic group, color, nationality, social origin, religion, age, marital status, sexual orientation, sex, opinions, family status and source of income. In my company, respect is a very important aspect, we accept every member the way they are. Supporting each other rather than rejecting. (Denison, 1990). In my organization, we use a process called â€Å"Onboarding†. Onboarding is the process whereby information, training, mentoring and coaching is provided to new members. This makes new members feel welcome and informed. This also increases productivity from the beginning, reduces costs due to flaws and saves co-workers training time. According to (Parker, 1993) this process includes four stages to let new employees â€Å"onboard†. Acquiring is the first step we use in the onboarding process: In this first step, newcomers will be introduced to co-workers. The group in which the employee will work is already decided before his/ her arrival. The employee will now get the opportunity to talk to other group members to create a mental picture of what the work will include. Accommodation is the next step, new employees are provided with all the necessary resources to make their working experience pleasant. In my company, new employees get a computer, which stays at the office at all times. This computer will have all the newest software on it, ensuring that the employee can do the tasks effectively without any discomfort. Assimilation is step 3 of onboarding. The intern will now be allocated to a more experienced member. This member will show the intern around, showing him where everything is and given him a crash-course about what will be expected of him. The intern can now shadow the person to get the hang of things. Please do note that the newcomer is expected to have all the skills needed to obtain this job. Like the necessary degrees etc. , which was considered before appointing the job to the person? Acceleration: In this stage, new members engage in their working tasks, still learning as they go, but now they are able to feel comfortable in their working environment. In this stage the results are brought to the table and fairly employees now have the chance to perform and show everybody what their made of. 3. How my organizational culture can be improved: Before discussing the stages I shall take to do so, there are a few core principles that should be in place. Values are the first, which means the core values and believes of the company should be spelled out very clearly. All employees should know what the company stands for. Second are goals. When everyone knows what the goals and milestones of the company are, they know what is expected of them. Consistency is the next fundamental point- keeping the standards and goals high. Communication, important in every aspect of life is also important to improve the culture in organizations. The last point is celebration- everybody needs some reward for good work done. This will motivate employees to work hard to reach the upcoming goals and having fun in the workplace is fundamental. (Denison , 1990). The above is not the strategies I will follow to improve my organizational culture, its important elements that forms the basis of a good organizational culture. The stages of improvement include strategies to spread the culture throughout the company and beyond the borders of the company and let everyone be aware of them. I believe through doing that, the culture will improve. Here follows 6 strategies Symbols: Symbols are, according to (Ornstein, 1986) those objects, not needing words to be described. The symbols of an organization can rest in the waiting room, the size of the building, the awards hanging around, the atmosphere when you walk into the doors etc. these symbols let you know what the company is all about. Thus, it spells out the organizational culture. Slogans- Phrases that summarize the organizational culture: Slogans are those catchy tunes or saying things unique to a certain company. The slogan can tell you a lot about the companies’ culture, because the companies â€Å"heart† is captures in a few phrases. Thus, the employees and public can grasp the essence of the organizations- whereas the culture is improved. Stories: These are the re-authoring of important and catchy moments in the company’s history. The telling of these stories can re-introduce important values to employees. (Martin, 1982). These stories might be told in a formal way (in a meeting) or informally (employees drinking coffee). These stories remind employees how â€Å"we use to do it around here† and indirectly creating some expectations or guidelines. Through this the employees get a clear understanding of what the company cherishes. Jargon: These are the everyday language used in the company. Companies may also create their own phrases or words, which are understood by each other. These jargons might become unique to this company, but may also spread out to the public, making the company â€Å"famous† for their unique words. According to (Carroll. 1993) Jargons are especially popular in the high-tech world (like my company is). Ceremonies: These special events celebrate whatever it is that it most essential to the company. By looking at the reason for celebration, you will get to know the core beliefs and values of a company. Therefore, by hosting ceremonies, the employees and public can see what is valued the most. This will strengthen the culture of the organization. Lastly is Statements of Principle: Defining culture through writing: This means bringing forward a statement of principle. In this statement lie the core values of your company, reinforcing and clarifying the qualities of the company. (Carroll, 1993). Bibliography Carroll, P. (1993). Big blues: The unmaking of IBM. New York: Crown. Denison, R (1990). Corporate culture and organizational effectiveness (3rd ed. ) Oxford, England: John Wiley Sons. Greenberg, J (2011). Behavior in Organizations. Martin, J. (1982). Stories and scripts in organizational settings. In A. Hastorf A. Isen (Eds. ), Cognitive social psychology (pp 255-306). New York: Elsevier-North Holland. Ornstein, S. L. (1986). Organizational symbols: A study of their meanings and influences on perceived psychological climate. In J. Greenberg, Behavior in Organizations (p 520). London: Pearson Publications. Parker, M (1993). Postmodernism and organizations. Sage Publications ltd.

Middle Ages Literature free essay sample

The Middle Ages had many interesting characteristics concerning the literature of that time period. The important literary works â€Å"incorporated elements and values drawn from different and conflicting traditions (Patterson 1143). For every opinion, there was another opinion to counter it. Many of the pieces of literature at this time had contradictory ideas in them or had competing interests (Patterson 1144). The literature of this time shows us that â€Å"many people took the central doctrine of Christianity so much for granted that their daily lives seem largely untroubled by the moral and spiritual demands of religion† (Patterson 1144). Another characteristic of the literature was that it alerts us to the â€Å"complexities and dilemmas that any faith poses† (Patterson 1144). The Middle Ages is also called the â€Å"age of chivalry† (Patterson 1144). The literature mainly â€Å"expresses the values of the most powerful members of society, the aristocracy† (Patterson 1144). The aristocracy achieved their power through â€Å"military might† (Patterson 1144). There was also an â€Å"explicit code of chivalry† (Patterson 1145). We will write a custom essay sample on Middle Ages Literature or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The values were â€Å"never entirely consistent with each other† (Patterson 1145). Characters of literature had to choose whether to be a lover or a warrior (Patterson 1145). The main concerns of the literature were â€Å"the demands of religious faith and appropriate use of physical force, and the individual human being working out his or her individual destiny† (Patterson 1145). The literature during this time contributed to a list of vivid characters to the world of literature (Patterson 1145). Writers created unforgettable, complex literary characters to deal with the themes (Patterson 1145). The Middle Ages contrasted to the Renaissance because the Renaissance’s characters had â€Å"greater autonomy and fully realized personalities† (James 1883). The Renaissance’s literature did not judge â€Å"human action by right and wrong but by beauty, memorability, and effectiveness† (James 1886). During the Renaissance, the presence of God was much less dominating (James 1887). Medieval men and women were more concerned with the afterlife, while in the Renaissance they had a preoccupation with this life (James 1886). The Canterbury Tales fits into the Middle Ages well with some characteristics and not quite as well concerning others. For example, the Pardoner in The Canterbury Tales preaches the word of God on a daily basis, yet he is morally corrupt in his everyday life (Chaucer 1759). He preaches of greed, yet is greedy himself (Chaucer 1759). The Pardoner steals from the church, as well as innocent people (Chaucer 1758). Chaucer showed us that people took the doctrine of the church for granted. Other characters in The Canterbury Tales spoke of God and were Christians, yet didn’t bother with feeling morally obligated to act right. The dilemmas of being a Christian in real-life are seen. Some of the characters are Christian but it is more complex and takes an effort to be a Christian. The Canterbury Tales didn’t seem to have contradictory themes necessarily. Chaucer makes his views of various social ranks known through a use of satire. The characters themselves are contradictory, as we see with the Pardoner once again (Chaucer 1758). Since Chaucer has every type of social rank represented, we see his view of these ranks, which does contradict some of the jobs or moral obligations of various people. The characters in the story itself did compete for various interests. They all held different values or beliefs about the world. Chaucer lived during this time period, so it is in a way a more realistic view rather than contradictory. The explicit code of chivalry isn’t necessarily a large component of The Canterbury Tales except for perhaps the Knight and his tale. Chaucer shows that some people were focused on the chivalry act during this time. The Canterbury Tales doesn’t focus on pleasing the aristocracy either. Chaucer wrote from the perspective of every social rank so his book was meant for the poor and rich. Its subject matter was meant to be appealing to all Medieval people. The final characteristic that The Canterbury Tales does follow is the well developed characters. Chaucer had a whole list of realistic, complex characters. These characters could rival the Renaissance’s characters to me. I enjoyed reading about the characters and reading even more of The Canterbury Tales online. The Canterbury Tales fits well with the characteristics of the Middle Ages for the most part. The individual characters do have an individual goal in mind. Chaucer seemed as if he cared about his characters and wanted readers to his get to know them on an individual level, which seems more ahead of his time.

At First Sight essays

At First Sight essays Based on a true story At First Sight reveals the triumphs and tribulations of falling in love with a blind person. Amy (Mira Sorvino) is a hard working, New York architect who is desperately in need of a relaxing vacation. While on vacation she meets and falls in love with Virgil Adamson (Val Kilmer), a seductive massage therapist. After being swept away with his massage, she discovers he is blind. Although Virgil is content with being blind, Amy convinces him to under go experimental eye surgery. Following the surgery Virgil is able to see for the first time since he was three. However, they discover it reveals a much larger challenge, sight association. Virgil is confronted with the fact that even though he can physically see, he does not realize what he is seeing without feeling it first. While dealing with this challenge they discover that his sight is temporary and he will eventually be totally blind again. At First Sight starts out as a love story, but ends up being more about Virgils challenges. Even though I enjoyed this movie very much, I would have enjoyed it more had they focused on either the love story or his challenges. If you dont know most of the medical terms they use you will be easily confused. Val Kilmer is very convincing in his role of a blind man. He makes you feel very grateful for what we take for granted every day. If you have a soft heart, like I do, for "glamorized" movies then you will surely enjoy this movie. ...

Discuss the reforms made by SCAP and their legac Essay

Discuss the reforms made by SCAP and their legac - Essay Example At the same time, the demilitarization issue became so controversial because; despite the fact that military empowerment was banned by Article 9 of the constitution, Japan continued to sustain a strong military budget (Buckley 4). The reforms not only demilitarized Japan but also aimed to enhance democracy and the rule of law in the country. They influenced Japan to shift away from the Meiji Constitution and the Prewar forces and policies. An important pillar of the reforms was the introduction of the initiative that sovereignty comes from the citizens because it eliminates the higher privilege of autocracy. At the same time, the reforms aimed to protect the rights of women. The latter gave the Japanese women the power to vote. The endorsement of clause 9 of the constitution by the reforms helped to prevent Japan from becoming a violent military power. However, the United States later pressurized Japan to rebuilt its military power for self-defense against other outside ideologies such as communism in other parts of the world, including Asia. This came soon after the Korean War and the Chinese Civil War. During the war in Korea, the US military forces withdrew from Japan. This left the country almost defenseless. A national police reserve was also created that was armed with massive weaponry equivalent to the army. The reforms also led to the formation of the Japan Self-defense Forces that acted as an extension of the police force. Another reform was liberalization. The priorities of the US towards Japan gradually shifted from the liberal policies to a change in the political stability as well as economic recovery. Democratization and demilitarization lost their momentum and seemed to stall. For example, economic decentralization was uncompleted as the country responded to new imperatives. The US also encouraged industrial policies and business activities that have now become sources of

Weapons, Personal Protection and Use of Force Essay

Weapons, Personal Protection and Use of Force - Essay Example Heller, in the year 2008, the Supreme Court of US held that the second amendment empowers a person to have a gun for personal use. It allows individuals to keep loaded gun for personal safety and security. In the case of McDonald v Chicago in the year 2010, the Supreme Court admitted the rights of states and the federal government (Gutmacher, 2006). Weaponry Laws of the US In the United States of America the sale, purchase and possession of firearms and their use come under the purview Weapons laws. State laws of each state differ from each other and are not dependent on federal firearms laws. However, sometimes they are wide and sometimes they are narrow in terms of its scope. Take the example of some of the states which have put ban on assault weapon which are similar in nature of federal assault weapons bans. There are 44 States wherein state constitutions are identical to the Second Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. The names of those states are California, Iowa, Maryland, Minn esota, New Jersey, and New York. The statutory civil rights of the New York are similar to the Second Amendment of the US Constitution. In the McDonald v Chicago it was held by the Supreme Court that the protections of the Second Amendment are applicable against state governments (Lott, 2010). The owners of the fire arms are to abide by the laws of state where they live in. It has nothing to do with their place of temporary or permanent residence. The weaponry laws vary from state to state. The State of Florida allows an individual to carry concealed weapons and firearms. In many states, an individual is not allowed to carry out firearms therefore, it is necessary to check the state laws of weapons where one intends to visit (Lott, 2010). In so many states of US, firearms laws are restrictive and have no comparison with federal firearms laws. However, the state and local police are not legally bound to comply with federal weaponry laws (Lott, 2010). Personal Protection Eligibility C riteria In order to possess firearms for personal safety and security, the US citizen has to meet the following requirement (Eligibility Requirements for a License to Carry Firearms): legal resident 21 years of age No outstanding warrant No current restraining order / suspension / surrender order No confinement for drug addiction or for use of alcoholism. In case of cured for addiction / alcoholism, submit registered physician certificate No confinement to hospital for mental illness. On rehabilitation, an individual has to submit a certificate from registered physician that now he or she is fit for use of firearms in his or her self defense Permanent disqualifiers are those offenses who are punishable for more than 2 years of imprisonment. Personal protection as per US law is a complex right. On the one hand, it gives honors to the inherent rights of a citizen to keep and use firearms for personal safety and security. The provision of firearms to each and every citizen has shaken t he faith and confidence of the citizens in the rule of law. The issuance of firearms license means that the states or federal government absolved from its first and foremost responsibility to maintain law and order in their administrative jurisdiction. By virtue of given right, one can take his or her revenge from any other person or to intimidate someone with the use of firearms to settle his or her score (Mauser, 1996). However, use of firearms for personal protection can be differentiated from all other reasons of using firearms. Personal protect

Branding Essay Example for Free

Branding Essay Case Study 1: Transaction pricing in a recessionary economy Our client is an FMCG major that sells its products across many large and small retailers. The client is facing pressure from one such large retailer to cut prices across brands and categories. The client is therefore losing money on several products. Our client would like to use analytics to bring in some science into the pricing decision. Our analysis should help the client decide what pricing strategies should be applied to each product. How would you approach this analysis? The data available is weekly price and volume data for all client brands at the retailer for a period of 2 years. Case Study 2: Managing extreme seasonality Our brand is a high end lifestyle brand, famous globally. They however, face an issue of seasonal sales, with over 60% of their sales coming in the holiday period. They would like to understand how best to ensure sales in non seasonal periods as well and make the sales curve more even. Data available includes volume and values sales and usage and attitude studies. Case Study 3: NPD (own label) at a supermarket chain A leading supermarket chain wants to expand its limited portfolio of RTE food products. Transaction data for the past 1 year is available. How would you go about understanding the type of products to be introduced? What is the launch strategy for the products chosen? Case Study 4: Acquisition vs New product development A food major in the market with no chips brand in its portfolio. A decision has been made at the board level to either acquire an existing brand or launch a new one in this space. You are in charge of implementing this. 1. How will you take the decision on acquisition vs. new product development? Which metrics would you evaluate, what analysis would you perform what data would you require? 2. If you decide to acquire a brand, how would you choose among the existing brands? What info do you require on each brand to make this call? a. Any intangible factors that would influence your valuation of existing brands? In case you decide to launch a new brand, how would you go about it? How would you decide the desired new brand characteristics and the associated marketing mix? Case Study 5: Analyzing brand performance A chips brand has recently been launched, but its performance has not been too good. The large promotional investments put in have not yielded lasting returns. You are told to investigate what’s wrong with the brand. 1. What data would you request to complete your investigation in this case? 2. Can you talk about your analysis roadmap in this scenario? What possible corrective actions would you suggest (you are free to make relevant assumptions on the diagnosis)? Case Study 6: Heritage brand with stagnating growth A very old chips brand (kind of like a heritage brand) is faced with stagnating growth. It continues to perform reasonably well on key equity parameters, and there is no decline compared to previous years. 1. How do you read the situation? What data would you require to make an accurate diagnosis of the issue? What are the potential corrective actions you would suggest? How would you decide between the various options?

Human Companionship in Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein :: Mary Shelly, Frankenstein

Human companionship is one of the most basic needs of humans that can be seen in the Creation story. It is tricky for any human to find the perfect companion especially if one is one of a kind. In Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein two characters exemplify this need. Dr. Victor Frankenstein and The Creature are in search of companionship, and they will go to great lengths to achieve it. The classic theme of perversion of family is a major component in Frankenstein. Dr. Frankenstein comes from a good family but in his adult life he longs for a new companion this is mainly found in the Creature and Elizabeth. The development for the need for the Creature starts when he falls in love with knowledge and is furthered when he leaves to study. In his child hood he has â€Å"Natural philosophy is the genius that has regulated my fate; I desire, therefore, in this narration, to stat those facts which led to my predilection for that science†(Shelley 36). This passion develops into his obsession in his adult life when he gains more accesses to knowledge and equipment. Then it climaxes with start of the creation of the Creature because his accesses to bodies and tools. (quote Intro) â€Å"I read with ardour those works, so full of genius and discrimination†¦ it easily conceived that my progress was rapid†(48). His description of the creation makes it seem like he is mothering a child into birth. He distorts the sanity of child birth by creating a human in a lab. This also makes him the mother and father of the Creature. (quote intro) â€Å"When I found so astonishing a power placed within my hands, I hesitated a long time concerning the manner in which I should employ it†¦ my first success to permit me doubt of my ability to give live†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (51). This illustrates his power that he has that was never meant to be any humans. With the successful test my can create life, strengthens his bond with this impending birth of Creature, who embodies all of his scientific achievement. (quote Intro) â€Å"How can I describe my emotions at this catastrophe, or how delineate the wretch whom with such infinite pains and care I had endeavored to from?† (55). Frankenstein shuns his own creation, whom he should be the loving parents of. The culmination of all of Frankenstein’s education led to creation his own companionship; he can not bear to see his hideous creation.

Friedrich Von Hayek – Law, Legislation and Liberty

t of e ofj â€Å"cc L AW, LEGISLATION AND LIBERTY This is Hayek's major statement of political philosophy. Rejecting Marx, Freud, logical positivism and political egalitarianism, Hayek shows that the naive application of scientific methods to culture and education has been harmful and misleading, creating superstition and error rather than an age of reason and culture. Law, Legislation and Liberty combines all three volumes of Hayek's comprehensive study on the basic principles of the political order of a free society.Rules and Order deals with the basic conceptions necessary for a critical analysis of prevailing theories of justice and of conditions which a constitution securing personal liberty would have to satisfy. The Mirage of Social Justice presents a critical analysis of the theories of utilitarianism, legal positivism and ‘social justice'. The Political Order of a Free People demonstrates that the democratic ideal is in danger of miscarrying due to confusions of egali tarianism and democracy, erroneous assumptions that there can be moral standards without moral discipline, and that tradition can be ignored in proposals for restructuring society.F. A. Hayek became both a Doctor of Law and a Doctor of Political Science at the University of Vienna. He was made the first Director of the Austrian Institute of Economic Research and in 1931 was appointed to a chair at the London School of Economics. In 1950 he went to the University of Chicago as Professor of Social and Moral Sciences and then became Professor of Economics at the Albert-Ludwigs-Universitat of Frieburg and Professor Emeritus in 1967. He was also a Fellow of the British Academy and was awarded a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1974. Hayek died in 1992. L AW, LEGISLATION AND LIBERTYA new statement of the liberal principles of justice and political economy Volume 1 RULES AND ORDER Volume 2 THE MIRAGE OF SOCIAL JUSTICE Volume 3 THE POLITICAL ORDER OF A FREE PEOPLE F. A. Hayek Vol. 1 Rul es and Order first published 1973 Vol. 2 The Mirage of Social Justice first published 1976 Vol. 3 The Political Order of a Free People first published 1979 First published in one volume with corrections and revised preface in 1982 by Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Reprinted 1993, 1998 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE  © F. A. Hayek 1973, 1976, 1979, 1982 Printed and bound in Great Britain by T. l.International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-415-09868-8 C ONTENTS Volume 1 RULES AND ORDER xv CONSOLIDATED PREFACE INTRODUCTION 8 REASON AND EV OLUTION Construction and evolutionThe tenets of Cartesian rationalism The permanent limitations of our factual knowledge Factual knowledge and science The concurrent evolution of mind and society: the role of rules The false dichotomy of ‘natural' and ‘artificial' The rise of the evolutionary approach The persistence of constructivism in current thought Our anthropomorphic language Reason and abstraction Why the extreme forms of constructivist rationalism regularly lead to a revolt against reason 2 8 9 11 15 17 20 22 24 26 29 31 COSMOS AND TAXIS 35 The concept of order The two sources of order The distinguishing properties of spontaneous orders Spontaneous orders in natureIn society, reliance on spontaneous order both extends and limits our powers of control Spontaneous orders result from their elements obeying certain rules of conduct The spontaneous order of society is made up of individuals and organizations 35 36 38 39 v 41 43 46 C ONTENTS The rules of spon taneous o rders and the rules of organization The terms ‘organism' and ‘organization' 5 55 55 67 THE CHANGING CONCEPT OF LAW 72 Law is older than legislation The lessons of ethology and cultural anthropology The process 0. [ articulation of practices Factual and normative rules Early law The classical and the medieval traditionThe distinctive attributes of law arising from custom and precedent Why grown law requires correction by legislation The origin of legislative bodies Allegiance and sovereignty 4 PRINCIPLES AND EXPEDIENCY Individual aims and collective benefits Freedom can be preserved only by following principles and is destroyed by following expediency The ‘necessities' of policy are generally the consequences of earlier measures The danger ofattaching greater importance to the predictable rather than to the merely possibleconsequences ofour actions Spurious realisln and the required courage to consider utopia The role of the lawyer in political evolutionThe modern d evelopment of law has been guided largely by false economics 3 48 52 72 74 76 78 81 82 85 88 89 91 NOMOS: THE LAW OF LIBERTY 94 The functions of the judge How the task of the judge differs fro In that of the head of an organization The aiJn of jurisdiction is the Inaintenance of an ongoing order of actions ‘Actions towards others' and the protection ofexpectations 94 vi 56 59 61 62 65 97 98 101 C ONTENTS In a dynamic order of actions only some expectations can be protected The maximal coincidence of expectations is achieved by the deli/nitation of protected domains The general problem of the effects of values on factsThe ‘purpose' of law The articulations of the law and the predictability of judicial decisions Thefunction ofthejudge is confined to a spontaneous order Conclusions 6 THESIS: THE LAW OF LEGISLATION Legislation originates from the necessity of establishing rules of organization Law and statute-the enforcement of law and the execution of commands Legislation a nd the theory of the separation of powers The governmental functions of representative asselnblies Private law and public law Constitutional law Financial legislation Administrative law and the police power The ‘In easures , of policyThe transformation of private law into public law by ‘social'legislation The Inental bias ofa legislature preoccupied with governlnent 102 106 110 112 115 118 122 124 124 126 128 129 131 134 136 137 139 141 143 145 NOTES vii C ONTENTS Volume 2 THE MIRAGE OF SOCIAL JUSTICE 7 GENERAL WELFARE AND PARTICULAR PURPOSES In a free society the general good consists principally in the facilities for the pursuit of unknown purposes The general interest and collective goods Rules and ignorance The significance of abstract rules in a world in which most of the particulars are unknown Will and opinion, ends and values, commands and rules, nd other terminological issues Abstract rules operate as ultimate values because they serve unknown particular ends Th e constructivist fallacy of utilitarianism All valid criticism or improvement of rules of conduct must proceed within a given system of rules ‘Generalization' and the test of universalizabiiity To perform their functions rules must be applied throughout the long run 8 29 THE QUEST FOR JUSTICE 31 Justice is an attribute of human conduct Justice and the law Rules of just conduct are generally prohibitions of unjust conduct Not only the rules ofjust conduct, but also the test of their justice, are negativeThe significance of the negative character of the test of injustice The ideology of legal positivism The ‘pure theory of law' 31 34 viii 1 6 8 11 12 15 17 24 27 35 38 42 44 48 C ONTENTS Law and morals The ‘law of nature' Law and sovereignty 9 56 61 ‘SOCIAL' OR DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE 62 59 The concept of ‘social justice' The conquest of public imagination by ‘social justice' The inapplicability of the concept ofjustice to the results of a spontaneous p rocess The rationale of the economic game in which only the conduct of the players but not the result can be just The alleged necessity of a belief in the justice of rewardsThere is no ‘value to society' The meaning of ‘social' ‘Social justice' and equality ‘Equality of opportunity' ‘Social justice' and freedom under the law The spatial range of ‘social justice' Claims for compensation for distasteful jobs The resentment of the loss of accustomed positions Conclusions APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 9 62 65 67 70 73 75 78 80 84 85 88 91 93 96 JUSTICE AND 101 INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS lOT HEM ARK E TOR DE R 0 RCA TAL L A X Y The nature of the market order A free society is a pluralistic society without a common hierarchy of ends Though not asingle economy, the Great Society is still held ogether by what vulgarly are called economic relations The aim of policy in a society offree men cannot be a maximum offoreknown results but only an abstract order The game of catalla xy In judging the adaptations to changing circumstances comparisons of the new with the former position are irrelevant ix 107 107 109 112 114 115 120 C ONTENTS Rules of just conduct protect only material domains and not market values The correspondence of expectations is brought about by a disappointment of some expectations Abstract rules of conduct can determine only chances and not particular results Specific comlnands (‘interference') in a catallaxy create isorder and can never be just The aim of law should be to improve equally the chances of all The Good Society is one in which the chances of anyone selected at random are likely to be as great as possible 11 123 124 126 128 129 132 THE DISCIPLINE OF ABSTRACT RULES AND THE EMOTIONS OF THE TRIBAL SOCIETY 133 The pursuit of unattainable goals may prevent the achievement of the possible The causes of the revival of the organizational thinking of the tribe The immoral consequences of morally inspired efforts In the Great Soci ety ‘social justice' becomes a disruptive force From the care of the most unfortunate to the protection f vested interests Attempts to ‘correct' the order of the market lead to its destruction The revolt against the discipline of abstract rules The morals of the open and of the closed society The old conflict between loyalty and justice The small group in the Open Society The importance of voluntary associations 149 150 NOTES 153 x 133 134 135 137 139 142 143 144 147 C ONTENTS Volume 3 THE POLITICAL ORDER OF A FREE PEOPLE 12 MAJORITY OPINION AND CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACY The progressive disillusionment about democracy Unlimited power the fatal effect of the prevailing form of democracy The true content of the democratic idealThe weakness of an elective assembly with unlimited 3 5 8 powe~ Coalitions of organized interests and the apparatus of para-government Agreement on general rules and on particular measures 13 13 17 THE DIVISION OF DEMOCRATIC POWERS 20 The loss of the or iginal conception of the functions of a legislature Existing representative institutions have been shaped by the needs of government, not of legislation Bodies with powers of specific direction are unsuitedfor law-making The character of existing ‘legislatures' determined by their governmental tasks Party legislation leads to the decay of democratic societyThe constructivistic superstition of sovereignty The requisite division of the powers of represen tative assemblies Democracy or demarchy? xi 20 22 25 27 31 33 35 38 C ONTENTS 14 THE PUBLIC SECTOR AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR The double task of government Collective goods The delimitation of the public sector The independent sector Taxation and the size of the public sector Security Government monopoly of services Information and education Other critical issues 15 41 41 43 46 49 51 54 56 60 62 GOVERNMENT POLICY AND THE MARKET 65 The advantages of competition do not depend on it being ‘perfect' Competition as a discovery proc edureIf the factual requirements of ‘perfect' competition are absent, it is not possible to makefirms act ‘as if' it existed The achievemen ts of the free market Competition and rationality Size, concentration and power The political aspects of economic power When monopoly becomes harmful The problem of anti-monopoly legislation Not individual, but group selfishness is the chief threat The consequences of a political determination of the incomes of the different groups Organizable and non-organizable interests 16 65 67 70 74 75 77 80 83 85 89 93 96 THE MISCARRIAGE OF THE DEMOCRATIC IDEAL: A RECAPITUALATION The miscarriage of the democratic idealA ‘bargaining' democracy The playball of group interests Laws versus directions Laws and arbitrary government Froln unequal treatment to arbitrariness Separation of powers to prevent unlimited governlnent xii 98 98 99 99 100 101 102 104 C ONTENTS 17 105 The wrong turn taken by the development ofrepresentative institutions Th e value of a model of an ideal constitution The basic principles The two representative bodies with distinctive functions Further observations on representation by age groups The governmental assembly The constitutional court The general structure of authority Emergency powers The division offinancial powers 8 A MODEL CONSTITUTION 105 107 109 111 117 119 120 122 124 126 THE CONTAINMENT OF POWER AND THE DETH RONEM ENT OF POL ITICS 128 Lilnited and unlimited power Peace, freedom and justice: the three great negatives Centralization and decentralization The rule of the Inajority versus the rule of laws approved by the majority Moral confusion and the decay of language Democratic procedure and egalitarian objectives ‘State' and ‘society' A game according to rules can never know justice of treatment The para-government of organized interests and the hypertrophy of go vern men t Unlimited democracy and centralizationThe devolution of internal policy to local government The abo lition of the government monopoly of services The dethronement ofpolitics 128 130 132 133 135 137 139 141 143 145 146 147 149 EPILOGUE: THE THREE SOURCES OF HUMAN VALUES 153 The errors of sociobiology The process of cultural evolution The evolution of self-maintaining complex systems The stratification of rules of conduct 153 155 158 159 xiii C ONTENTS Customary rules and economic order The discipline offreedom The re-emergence of suppressed primordial instincts Evolution, tradition and progress The construction of new morals to serve old instincts: A1arxThe destruction ofindispensable values by scientific error: Freud The tables turned 161 163 165 168 169 173 175 177 NOTES I N DE X 0 F AUT H 0 R SCI TED I N VOL U M E S SUBJECT INDEX TO VOLUMES xiv 1-3 1- 3 209 217 C ONSOLIDATED PREFACE TO ONE-VOLUME EDITION At last this work can appear in the form it was intended to take when I started on it nearly twenty years ago. Half way through this period, when a first draft was nearly comple ted, a weakening of my powers, which fortunately proved to be temporary, made me doubt whether I should ever be able to complete it and led me to publish in 1973 a fully completed part of what were to become three eparate volumes. When a year later I found my powers returning I discovered that various circumstances made substantial revisions necessary of even those further parts of the draft which I had thought to be in fairly finished state. As I explained in the preface to the second volume, which appeared in 1976, the chief reason was my dissatisfaction with that central chapter which gave that volume its sub-title The Mirage of Social Justice. This account] had better repeat here: I had devoted to this subject an enormous chapter in which I had tried to show for a large number of instances that what as claimed as demanded by ‘social justice' could not be justice because the underlying consideration (one could hardly call it a principle) was not capable of general applicati on. The point I was then mainly anxious to demonstrate was that people would never be able to agree on what ‘social justice' required, and that any attempt to determine remunerations according to what it was thought was demanded by justice would make the market unworkable. I have now become convinced, however, that the people who habitually employ the phrase simply do not know themselves what they mean by t and just use it as an assertion that a claim is justified ‘without giving a reason for it. In my earlier efforts to criticize the concept I had all the time the feeling that I was hitting into a void and I finally attempted, what in such cases one ought to do in the first xv P REFACE instance, to construct as good a case in support of the ideal of ‘social justice' as was in my power. It was only then that I perceived that the Emperor had no clothes on, that is, that the term ‘social justice' was entirely empty and meaningless. As the boy in Hans Christian Andersen's story, I ‘could not see anything, because there was nothing to be seen. The more I tried to give it a definite meaning the more it fell apart-the intuitive feeling of indignation which we undeniably often experience in particular instances proved incapable of being justified by a general rule such as the conception of justice demands. But to demonstrate that a universally used expression which to many people embodies a quasi-religious belief has no content whatever and serves merely to insinuate that we ought to consent to a demand of some particular group is much more difficult than to show that a conception is wrong.In these circumstances I could not content myself to show that particular attempts to achieve ‘social justice' would not work, but had to explain that the phrase meant nothing at all, and that to employ it was either thoughtless or fraudulent. It is not pleasant to have to argue against a superstition which is held most strongly by men and women who are often regarded as the best in our society, and against a belief that has become almost the new religion of our time (and in which many of the ministers of old religion have found their refuge), and which has become the recognized mark of the good man.But the present universality of that belief proves no more the reality of its object than did the universal belief in witches or the philosopher's stone. Nor does the long history of the conception of distributive justice understood as an attribute of individual conduct (and now often treated as synonymous with ‘social justice') prove that it has any relevance to the positions arising from the market process. I believe indeed that the greatest service I can still render to my fellow men would be if it were in my power to make them ashamed of ever again using that hollow incantation.I felt it my duty at least to try and free them of that incubus which today makes fine sentiments the instruments for the destruction of all va lues of a free civilization-and to try this at the risk of gravely offending many the strength of whose moral feelings I respect. xvi P REFACE The present version of the central chapter of this volume has in consequence of this history in some respects a slightly different character from the rest of the volume which in all essentials was completed six or seven years earlier. There was, on the one hand, nothing I could positively demonstrate but y task was to put the burden of proof squarely on those who employ the term. On the other hand, in re-writing that chapter I no longer had that easy access to adequate library facilities which I had when I prepared the first draft of this volume. I have in consequence not been able in that chapter systematically to take account of the more recent literature on the topics I discussed as I had endeavoured to do in the rest of this volume. In one instance the feeling that I ought to justify my position vis-a-vis a major recent work has also cont ributed to delay the completion of this volume.But after careful consideration I have come to the conclusion that what I might have to say about John Rawls' A Theory of Justice (1972) would not assist in the pursuit of my immediate object because the differences between us seemed more verbal than substantial. Though the first impression of readers may be different, Rawls' statement which I quote later in this volume (p. 100) seems to me to show that we agree on what is to me the essential point. Indeed, as I indicate in a note to that passage, it appears to me that Rawls has been widely misunderstood on this central issue.The preface to the third volume, which ultimately appeared in 1979, gives a similar account of the further development that also had better be repeated here: Except for what are now the last two chapters, most of it was in fairly finished form as long ago as the end of 1969 when indifferent health forced me to suspend the efforts to complete it. It was then, indeed , doubt whether I would ever succeed in doing so which made me decide to publish separately as volume 1 the first third of what had been intended to form a single volume, because it was in completely finished form. When I was able to return to ystematic work I discovered, as I have explained in the preface to volume 2, that at least one chapter of the original draft of that part required complete re-writing. Of the last third of the original draft only what was xvii P REFACE intended to be the last chapter (chapter 18) had not been completed at the time when I had discontinued work. But while I believe I have now more or less carried out the original intention, over the long period which has elapsed my ideas have developed further and I was reluctant to send out what inevitably must be my last systematic work without at east indicating in what direction my ideas have been moving. This has had the effect that not only what was meant to be the concluding chapter contains a good deal o f, I hope, improved re-statements of arguments I have developed earlier, but that I found it necessary to add an Epilogue which expresses more directly the general view of moral and political evolution which has guided me in the whole enterprise. I have also inserted as chapter 16 a brief recapitulation of the earlier argument. There were also other causes which have contributed to delay completion. As I had hesitated whether I ought to ublish volume 2 without taking full account of the important work of John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Oxford, 1972), two new important books in the field have since appeared which, if I were younger, I should feel I must fully digest before completing my own survey of the same kind of problems: Robert Nozik, Anarchy, State and Utopia (New York, 1974) and Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct (Oxford, 1975). Rightly or wrongly I finally decided that if I made an effort fully to absorb their argument before concluding my own exposition, I would probably never do this. But I regard it as my duty to tell the younger readers that they cannot fully omprehend the present state of thought on these issues unless they make that effort which I must postpone until I have completed the statement of the conclusions at which I had arrived before I became acquainted with these works. The long period over which the present work has been growing also had the effect that I came to regard it as expedient to change my terminology on some points on which I should warn the reader. It was largely the growth of cybernetics and the related subjects of information and system theory which persuaded me that expression other than those which I habitually used may be more readily comprehensible o the contemporary reader. Though I still like and occasionally use the term ‘spontaneous order', I agree that xviii P REFACE ‘self-generating order' or ‘self-organizing structures' are sometimes more precise and unambiguous and therefore frequently us e them instead of the former term. Similarly, instead of ‘order', in conformity with today's predominant usage, I occasionally now use ‘system'. Also ‘information' is clearly often preferable to where I usually spoke of ‘knowledge', since the former clearly refers to the knowledge of particular facts rather than theoretical knowledge to which plain ‘knowledge' might be thought to refer.Finally, since ‘constructivist' appears to some people still to carry the commendatory connotation derived from the adjective ‘constructive', I felt it advisable, in order clearly to bring out the deprecatory sense in which I use that term (significantly of Russian origin) to employ instead the, I am afraid, still more ugly term ‘constructivistic'. I should perhaps add that I feel some regret that I have not had the courage consistently to employ certain other neologisms I had suggested, such as ‘cosmos', ‘taxis', ‘nomos', ‘thesis ', ‘catallaxy' and ‘demarchy'.But what the exposition has thereby lost in precision it will probably have gained in ready intelligibility. Perhaps I should also again remind the reader that the present work was never intended to give an exhaustive or comprehensive exposition of the basic principles on which a society of free man could be maintained, but was rather meant to fill the gaps which I discovered after I had made an attempt to restate, in The Constitution of Liberty, for the contemporary reader the traditional doctrines of classical liberalism in a form suited to contemporary problems and thinking.It is for this reason a much less complete, much more difficult and personal but, I hope, also more original work than the former. But it is definitely supplementary to and not a substitute for it. To the non-specialist reader I would therefore recommend reading The Constitution of Liberty before he proceeds to the more detailed discussion or particular examination of problems to which I have attempted solutions in these volumes. But they are intended to explain why I still regard what have now long been treated as antiquated beliefs as greatly superior to any alternative octrines which have recently found more favour with the public. The reader will probably gather that the whole work has xix P REFACE been inspired by a growing apprehension about the direction in which the political order of what used to be regarded as the most advanced countries is teuding. The growing conviction, for which the book gives the reasons, that this threatening development towards a totalitarian state is made inevitable by certain deeply entrenched defects of construction of the generally accepted type of ‘democratic' government has forced me to think through alternative arrangements.I would like to repeat here that, though I profoundly believe in the basic principles of democracy as the only effective method which we have yet discovered of making peaceful cha nge possible, and am therefore much alarmed by the evident growing disillusionment about it as a desirable Inelhod of government-much assisted by the increasing abuse of the word to indicate supposed ailns of governmentI am becoming more and more convinced that we are moving towards an impasse from which political leaders will offer to extricate us by desperate means. When the present volume leads up to a proposal of basic lteration of the structure of democratic government, which at this time most people will regard as wholly impractical, this is meant to provide a sort of intellectual stand-by equipment for the time, which may not be far away, when the breakdown of the existing institutions becomes unmistakable and when I hope it may show a way out. It should enable us to preserve what is truly valuable in democracy and at the same time free us of its objectionable features which most people still accept only because they regard them as inevitable. Together with the similar stand- by scheme I have proposed for depriving overnment of the monopolistic powers of control of the supply of money, equally necessary if we are to escape the nightmare of increasingly totalitarian powers, which I have recently outlined in another publication (Denationalisation of Money, 2nd edn, Institute of Economic Affairs, London, 1978), it proposes what is a possible escape from the fate which threatens us. I shall be content if I have persuaded some people that if the first experiment of freedom we have tried in modern times should prove a failure, it is not because freedom is an impracticable ideal, but because we have tried it the wrong way. xx P REFACEI trust the reader will forgive a certain lack of system and some unnecessary repetitions in an exposition which has been written and re-written over a period of fifteen years, broken by a long period of indifferent health. I am very much aware of this, but if I tried in my eightieth year to recast it all, I shall probably never co mplete the task. The Epilogue I added to that volume before publication indicates that even during the period of restricted activity my ideas have continued to develop imperceptibly more than I was aware before I attempted to sketch my present general view of the whole position in a public lecture.As I said in the concluding words of the present text, it became clear to me that what I said in that Epilogue should not be an Epilogue but a new beginning. I am glad to be able to say now that it has turned out to be such and that that Epilogue has become the outline of a new book of which I have now completed a first draft. There are a few acknowledgments that I ought to repeat here. Some ten years ago Professor Edwin McClellan of the University of Chicago had again, as on earlier occasions, taken great trouble to make my exposition more readable than I myself could have done.I am deeply grateful for his sympathetic efforts but should add, that since even in the early parts the draft on which he has worked has since undergone further change, he must not be held responsible for whatever defects the present version still has. I have however incurred further obligations to Professor Arthur Shenfield of London who has gone through the final text of the third volume and corrected there a variety of substantial as well as stylistic points, and to Mrs Charlotte Cubitt who, in preparing the final copy of that volume, has further polished the text.I am also much indebted to Mrs Cornelia Crawford of Irvington-on-Hudson, New York, who has again applied her proven skill and understanding in preparing the subject index giving references to all three still separately paginated volumes. xxi L AW, LEGISLATION AND LIBERTY Volume 1 RULES AND ORDER Intelligent beings may have laws of their own making; but they also have some which they never made. (Montesquieu, De l'Esprit des lois, I, p. i) I NTRODUCTIONThere seems to be only one solution to the problem: that the elite of mankind a cquire a consciousness of the limitation of the human mind, at once simple and profound enough, humble and sublime enough, so that Western civilisation will resign itself to its inevitable disadvantages. G. Ferrero* When Montesquieu and the framers of the American Constitution articulated the conception of a limiting constitution 1 that had grown up in England, they set a pattern which liberal constitutionalism has followed ever since.Their chief aim was to provide institutional safeguards of individual freedom; and the device in which they placed their faith was the separation of powers. In the form in which we know this division of power between the legislature, the judiciary, and the administration, it has not achieved what it was meant to achieve. Governments everywhere have obtained by constitutional means powers which those men had meant to deny them. The first attempt to secure individual liberty by constitutions has evidently failed. Constitutionalism means limited governmen t. But the interpretation given to the traditional formulae of constitutionalism has made it possible to reconcile these with a conception of democracy according to which this is a form of government where the will of the majority on any particular matter is unlimited. 3 As a result it has already been seriously suggested that constitutions are an antiquated survival which have no place in the modern conception of government. 4 And, indeed, what function is served by a constitution which makes omnipotent government possible?Is its function to be merely that governments work smoothly and efficiently, whatever their aims? In these circumstances it seems important to ask what those founders of liberal constitutionalism would do today if, pursuing I NTRODUCTION the aims they did, they could command all the experience we have gained in the meantime. There is much we ought to have learned from the history of the last two hundred years that those men with all their wisdom could not have kn own. To me their aims seem to be as valid as ever.But as their means have proved inadequate, new institutional invention is needed. In another book I have attempted to restate, and hope to have in some measure succeeded in clarifying, the traditional doctrine of liberal constitutionalism. 5 But it was only after I had completed that work that I came to see clearly why those ideals had failed to retain the support of the idealists to whom all the great political movements are due, and to understand what are the governing beliefs of our time which have proved irreconcilable with them.It seems to me now that the reasons for this development were chiefly: the loss of the belief in a justice independent of personal interest; a consequent use of legislation to authorize coercion, not merely to prevent unjust action but to achieve particular results for specific persons or groups; and the fusion in the same representative assemblies of the task of articulating the rules of just conduct wit h that of directing government.What led me to write another book on the same general theme as the earlier one was the recognition that the preservation of a society of free men depends on three fundamental insights which have never been adequately expounded and to which the three main parts of this book are devoted. The first of these is that a selfgenerating or spontaneous order and an organization are distinct, and that their distinctiveness is related to the two different kinds of rules or laws which prevail in them.The second is that what today is generally regarded as ‘social' or distributive justice has meaning only within the second of these kinds of order, the organization; but that it is meaningless in, and wholly incompatible with, that spontaneous order which Adam Smith called ‘the Great Society', and Sir Karl Popper called ‘the Open Society'.The third is that the predominant model of liberal democratic institutions, in which the san1e representative bod y lays down the rules of just conduct and directs government, necessarily leads to a gradual transformation of the spontaneous order of a free society into a totalitarian system conducted in the service of some coalition of organized interests. This development, as I hope to show, is not a necessary consequence of democracy, but an effect only of that particular form of unlimited government vvith which delllocracy has come to be identi2 I NTRODUCTION fied.If I aln right, it would indeed seem that the particular form of representative government which now prevails in the Western world, and vhich many feel they must defend because they nlistakenly regard it as the only possible form of democracy, has an inherent tendency to lead away from the ideals it was intended to serve. It can hardly be denied that, since this type of democracy has come to be accepted, we have been moving away from that ideal of individual liberty of which it had been regarded as the surest safeguard, and are now drifting towards a system â€Å",~hich nobody wanted.Signs are not wanting, however, that unlimited democracy is riding for a fall and that it will go down, not with a bang, but with a whimper. It is already becoming clear that many of the expectations that have been raised can be met only by taking the powers of decision out of the hands of democratic assemblies and entrusting them to the established coalitions of organized interests and their hired experts. Indeed, we are already told that the function of representative bodies has become to ‘mobilize consent', 6 that is, not to express but to manipulate the opinion of those whom they represent.Sooner or later the people will discover that not only are they at the mercy of new vested interests, but that the political machinery of para-government, which has grown up as a necessary consequence of the provision-state, is producing an impasse by preventing society from making those adaptations which in a changing world are requ ired to maintain an existing standard of living, let alone to achieve a rising one. It will probably be some time before people will admit that the institutions they have created have led them into such an impasse. But it is probably not too early to begin thinking about a way out.And the conviction that this will demand some drastic revision of beliefs now generally accepted is what makes me venture here on some institutional invention. If I had known when I published The Constitution of Liberty that I should proceed to the task attempted in the present work, I should have reserved that title for it. I then used the term ‘constitution' in the wide sense in which we use it also to describe the state of fitness of a person. It is only in the present book that I address myself to the question of what constitutional arrangements, in the legal sense, might be most conducive to the preservation of individual freedom.Except for a bare hint which fev readers will have noticed,7 I con fined myself in the earlier book to stating the principles which the existing types of government would have 3 I NTRODUCTION to follow if they wished to preserve freedom. Increasing awareness that the prevailing institutions make this impossible has led me to concentrate more and more on what at first seemed merely an attractive but impracticable idea, until the utopia lost its strangeness and came to appear to me as the only solution of the problem in which the founders of liberal constitutionalism failed.Yet to this problem of constitutional design I turn only in volume 3 of this work. To make a suggestion for a radical departure from established tradition at all plausible required a critical re-examination not only of current beliefs but of the real meaning of some fundamental conceptions to which we still pay lip-service. In fact, I soon discovered that to carry out what I had undertaken would require little less than doing for the twentieth century what Montesquieu had done for the eighteenth.The reader will believe me when I say that in the course of the work I more than once despaired of my ability to come even near the aim I had set myself. I am not speaking here of the fact that Montesquieu was also a great literary genius whom no mere scholar can hope to emulate. I refer rather to the purely intellectual difficulty which is a result of the circumstance that, while for Montesquieu the field which such an undertaking must cover had not yet split into numerous specialisms, it has since become impossible for any man to master even the most important relevant works.Yet, although the problem of an appropriate social order is today studied from the different angles of economics, jurisprudence, political science, sociology, and ethics, the problem is one which can be approached successfully only as a whole. This means that whoever undertakes such a task today cannot claim professional competence in all the fields with which he has to deal, or be acquainted w ith the specialized literature available on all the questions that arise.Nowhere is the baneful effect of the division into specialisms more evident than in the two oldest of these disciplines, economics and law. Those eighteenth-century thinkers to whom we owe the basic conceptions of liberal constitutionalism, David Hume and Adam Smith, no less than Montesquieu, were still concerned with what some of them called the ‘science of legislation', or with principles of policy in the widest sense of this term.One of the main themes of this book will be that the rules of just conduct which the lawyer studies serve a kind of order of the character of which the lawyer is largely ignorant; and that this order is studied chiefly by the economist who in turn is similarly ignorant of the character of 4 I NTRODUCTION the rules of conduct on which the order that he studies rests. The most serious effect of the splitting up among several specialisms of what was once a common field of inquiry , however, is that it has left a no-man's-land, a vague subject sometimes called ‘social philosophy'.Some of the chief disputes within those special disciplines turn, in fact, on differences about questions which are not peculiar to, and are therefore also not systematically examined by, anyone of them, and which are for this reason regarded as ‘philosophical'. This serves often as an excuse for taking tacitly a position which is supposed either not to require or not to be capable of rational justification. Yet these crucial issues on which not only factual interpretations but also political positions wholly depend, are questions which can and must be answered on the basis of fact and logic.They are ‘philosophical' only in the sense that certain widely but erroneously held beliefs are due to the influence of a philosophical tradition which postulates a false answer to questions capable of a definite scientific treatment. In the first chapter of this book I attempt to show that certain widely held scientific as well as political views are dependent on a particular conception of the formation of social institutions, which I shall call ‘constructivist rationalism' -a conception which assumes that all social institutions are, and ought to be, the product of deliberate design.This intellectual tradition can be shown to be false both in its factual and in its normative conclusions, because the existing institutions are not all the product of design, neither would it be possible to make the social order vvholly dependent on design without at the same time greatly restricting the utilization of available knowledge. That erroneous view is closely connected with the equally false conception of the human mind as an entity standing outside the cosmos of nature and society, rather than being itself the product of the same process of evolution to which the institutions of society are due.I have indeed been led to the conviction that not only some of the scientific but also the most important political (or ‘ideological') differences of our time rest ultimately on certain basic philosophical differences between two schools of thought, of which one can be shown to be mistaken. They are both commonly referred to as rationalism, but I shall have to distinguish between them as the evolutionary (or, as Sir Karl Popper calls it, ‘critical') rationalism on the one hand, and the erroneous constructivist (Popper's naIve') rationalism on the other. If the constructivist rationalism 5 I NTRODUCTION can be shovn to be based on factually false assumptions, a whole family of schools of scientific as well as political thought will also be proved erroneous. In the theoretical fields it is particularly legal positivisn1 and the connected belief in the necessity of an unlimited ‘sovereign' pover which stand or fall vith this error.The same is true of utilitarianism, at least in its particularistic or ‘act' variety; also, I am afraid that a not inconsiderable part of what is called ‘sociology' is a direct child of constructivisn1 when it presents its aims as ‘to create the future of mankind' 8 or, as one writer put it, claims ‘that socialism is the logical and inevitable outcome of sociology'. 9 All the totalitarian doctrines, of vhich socialism is merely the noblest and most influential, indeed belong here.They are false, not because of the values on vhich they are based, but because of a misconception of the forces vhich have Inade the Great Society and civilization possible. r-rhe demonstration that the differences between socialists and non-socialists ultimately rest on purely intellectual issues capable of a scientific resolution and not on different judgments of value appears to me one of the most important outcomes of the train of thought pursued in this book.It appears to me also that the same factual error has long appeared to make insoluble the most crucial problem of politi cal organization, namely ho† to limit the ‘popular will' vithout placing another ‘†rill' above it. As soon as ve recognize that the basic order of the Great Society cannot rest entirely on design, and can therefore also not aim at particular foreseeable results, we see that the requirement, as legitilnation of all authority, of a commitment to general principles approved by general opinion, Inay well place effective restrictions on the particular yill of all authority, including that of the Inajority of the rnoment.On these issues vhich vill be my main concern, thought seems to have made little advance since David Hume and Imlnanuel Kant, and in several respects it vill be at the point at which they left off that our analysis will have to resume. It was they who came nearer than anybody has done since to a clear recognition of the status of values as independent and guiding conditions of all rational construction.What I am ultimately concerned with here, alth ough I can deal only vith a small aspect of it, is that destruction of values by scientific error which has increasingly come to seem to me the great tragedy of our time-a tragedy, because the values which scientific error tends to dethrone are the indispensable foundation of all our 6 I NTRODUCTION civilization, including the very scientific efforts which have turned against them.The tendency of constructivism to represent those values which it cannot explain as determined by arbitrary human – decisions, or acts of will, or mere emotions, rather than as the necessary conditions of facts which are taken for granted by its expounders, has done much to shake the foundations of civilization, and of science itself, which also rests on a system of values which cannot be scientifically proved. 7 ONE REASON AND EVOLUTION To relate by whom, and in what connection, the true law of the formation of free states was recognized, and how this iscovery, closely akin to those which, under th e names of development, evolution, and continuity, have given a new and deeper method to other sciences, solved the ancient problem betveen stability and change, and determined the authority of tradition on the progress of thought. Lord Acton* Construction and evolution There are two ways of looking at the pattern of human activities which lead to very different conclusions concerning both its explanation and the possibilities of deliberately altering it. Of these, one is based on conceptions which are demonstrably false, yet are so pleasing to human anity that they have gained great influence and are constantly employed even by people who know that they rest on a fiction, but believe that fiction to be innocuous. The other, although few people will question its basic contentions if they are stated abstractly, leads in some respects to conclusions so unwelcome that few are willing to follow it through to the end. The first gives us a sense of unlimited power to realize our wishes, w hile the second leads to the insight that there are limitations to what we can deliberately bring about, and to the recognition that some of our present hopes are delusions.Yet the effect of allowing ourselves to be deluded by the first view has always been that n1an has actually limited the scope of what he can achieve. For it has always been the recognition of the limits of the possible which has enabled man to make full use of his powers. 1 The first view holds that human institutions will serve human purposes only if they have been deliberately designed for these purposes, often also that the fact that an institution exists is evidence of its having been created for a purpose, and always that we R EASON AND EVOLUTION should so re-design society and its institutions that all our actions will be wholly guided by known purposes. To most people these propositions seem almost self-evident and to constitute an attitude alone worthy of a thinking being. Yet the belief underlying them, that we owe all beneficial institutions to design, and that only such design has made or can make them useful for our purposes, is largely false.This view is rooted originally in a deeply ingrained propensity of primitive thought to interpret all regularity to be found in phenomena anthropomorphically, as the result of the design of a thinking mind. But just when man was well on the â€Å"vay to emancipating himself from this naive conception, it was revived by the support of a powerful philosophy with which the aim of freeing the human mind from false prejudices has become closely associated, and which became the dominant conception of the Age of Reason.The other view, which has slowly and gradually advanced since antiquity but for a time was almost entirely overwhelmed by the more glamorous constructivist view, was that that orderliness of society which greatly increased the effectiveness of individual action was not due solely to institutions and practices which had been invente d or designed for that purpose, but was largely due to a process described at first as ‘growth' and later as ‘evolution', a process in which practices which had first been adopted for other reasons, or even purely accidentally, were preserved because they enabled the group in which they had arisen to prevail over others. Since its first systematic development in the eighteenth century this view had to struggle not only against the anthropomorphism of primitive thinking but even more against the reinforcement these naive views had received from the new rationalist philosophy. It was indeed the challenge which this philosophy provided that led to the explicit formulation of the evolutionary view. 2 The tenets of Cartesian rationalism The great thinker from whom the basic ideas of what we shall call constructivist rationalism received their most complete expression was Rene Descartes.But while he refrained from drawing the conclusions from them for social and moral argument s, 3 these were mainly elaborated by his slightly older (but much more long-lived) contemporary, Thomas Hobbes. Although Descartes' immediate concern was to establish criteria for the truth of propositions, these 9 R EASON AND EVOLUTION were inevitably also applied by his follovers to judge the appropriateness and justification of actions. The ‘radical doubt' which made him refuse to accept anything as true which could not be logically derived from explicit premises that were ‘clear and distinct', and therefore beyond possible doubt, deprived of validity all those rules of conduct which could not be justified in this manner. Although Descartes himself could escape the consequences by scribing such rules of conduct to the design of an omniscient deity, for those among his followers to whom this no longer seemed an adequate explanation the acceptance of anything which was based merely on tradition and could not be fully justified on rational grounds appeared as an irration al superstition. The rejection as ‘mere opinion' of all that could not be demonstrated to be true by his criteria became the dominant characteristic of the movement which he started. Since for Descartes reason was defined as logical deduction from explicit premises, rational action also came to mean only such action as was determined entirely by known and demonstrable truth. It is almost an inevitable step from this to the conclusion that only what is true in this sense can lead to successful action, and that therefore everything to which man owes his achievements is a product of his reasoning thus conceived.Institutions and practices which have not been designed in this n1anner can be beneficial only by accident. Such became the characteristic attitude of Cartesian constructivism with its contempt for tradition, custom, and history in general. Man's reason alone should enable him to construct society anew. 4 This ‘rationalist' approach, however, meant in effect a relaps e into earlier, anthropomorphic modes of thinking. It produced a reneved propensity to ascribe the origin of all institutions of culture to invention or design. Morals, religion and law, language and writing, money and the market, were thought of as having been deliberately constructed by somebody, or at least as owing whatever perfection they possessed to such design.This intentionalist or pragmatic 5 account of history found its fullest expression in the conception of the formation of society by a social contract, first in Hobbes and then in Rousseau, who in many respects was a direct follover of Descartes. 6 Even though their theory was not alvvays meant as a historical account of what actually happened, it was always meant to provide a guideline for deciding whether or not existing institutions were to be approved as rational. 10 R EASON AND EVOLUTION I t is to this philosophical conception that we owe the preference which prevails to the present day for everything that is done ‘consciously' or ‘deliberately', and from it the terms ‘irrational' or ‘non-rational' derive the derogatory meaning they now have.Because of this the earlier presumption in favour of traditional or established institutions and usages became a presumption against them, and ‘opinion' came to be thought of as ‘mere' opinionsomething not demonstrable or decidable by reason and therefore not to be accepted as a valid ground for decision. Yet the basic assumption underlying the belief that man has achieved n1astery of his surroundings mainly through his capacity for logical deduction from explicit premises is factually false, and any attempt to confine his actions to what could thus be justified would deprive him of many of the most effective means to success that have been available to him. It is simply not true that our actions owe their effectiveness solely or chiefly to knowledge which we can state in vords and vhich can therefore constitute the exp licit premises of a syllogism.Many of the institutions of society which are indispensable conditions for the successful pursuit of our conscious aims are in fact the result of customs, habits or practices which have been neither invented nor are observed with any such purpose in view. We live in a society in which we can successfully orientate ourselves, and in which our actions have a good chance of achieving their aims, not only because our fellows are governed by known aims or known connections between means and ends, but because they are also confined by rules whose purpose or origin we often do not know and of whose very existence we are often not aware. Man is as much a rule-following animal as a purpose-seeking one. And he is successful not because he knows why he ought to observe the rules vhich he does observe, or is even capable of stating all these rules in vords, but because his thinking and acting are governed by rules which have by a process of selection been evolved i n the society in which he lives, and vhich are thus the product of the experience of generations. The permanent limitations of our factual knowledge The constructivist approach leads to false conclusions because man's actions are largely successful, not merely in the primitive stage but perhaps even more so in civilization, because they are adapted both II R EASON AND EVOLUTION to the particular facts which he knows and to a great many other facts he does not and cannot know. And this adaptation to the general circumstances that surround him is brought about by his observance of rules which he has not designed and often does not even knovv explicitly, although he is able to honour them in action.Or, to put this differently, our adaptation to our environment does not consist only, and perhaps not even chiefly, in an insight into the relations between cause and effect, but also in our actions being governed by rules adapted to the kind of world in which we live, that is, to circumstan ces which we are not aware of and which yet determine the pattern of our successful actions. Complete rationality of action in the Cartesian sense demands complete knowledge of all the relevant facts. A designer or engineer needs all the data and full power to control or manipulate them if he is to organize the material objects to produce the intended result. But the success of action in society depends on more particular facts than anyone can possibly know. And our whole civilization in consequence rests, and must rest, on our believing rnuch that we cannot know to be true in the Cartesian sense. What we must ask the reader to keep constantly in mind throughout this book, hen, is the fact of the necessary and irremediable ignorance on everyone's part of most of the particular facts which determine the actions of all the several members of human society. This may at first seem to be a fact so obvious and incontestable as hardly to deserve mention, and still less to require proof. Ye t the result of not constantly stressing it is that it is only too readily forgotten. This is so mainly because it is a very inconvenient fact which makes both our attempts to explain and our attempts to influence intelligently the processes of society very much more difficult, and which places severe limits on what we can say or do about them. There exists therefore a great temptation, as a first approximation, to begin with the assumption that we know everything needed for full explanation or control.This provisional assumption is often treated as something of little consequence which can later be dropped without much effect on the conclusions. Yet this necessary ignorance of most of the particulars which enter the order of a Great Society is the source of the central problem of all social order and the false assumption by which it is provisionally put aside is mostly never explicitly abandoned but merely conveniently forgotten. The argument then proceeds as if that ignorance did not matter. 12 R EASON AND EVOLUTION The fact of our irrcrnediable ignorance of most of the particular facts which determine the processes of society is, however, the reason why most social institutions have taken the form they actually have.To talk about a society about vvhich either the observer or any of its members knows all the particular facts is to talk about something wholly different from anything vhich has ever existcda society in which lnost of vhat ve find in our society vould not and could not exist and vhich, if it ever occurred, vould possess properties ve cannot even imagine. I have discussed the importance of our necessary ignorance of the concrete facts at some length in an earlier book 8 and will emphasize its central importance here mainly by stating it at the head of the vhole exposition. But there are several points vhich require re-statement or elaboration. In he first instance, the incurable ignorance of everyone which I am speaking is the ignorance of partic ular facts which are or will become knovn to somebody and thereby affect the vhole structure of society. rrhis structure of human activities constantly adapts itself, and functions through adapting itself, to millions of facts which in their entirety are not known to anybody. The significance of this process is most obvious and Tas at first stressed in the economic field. As it has been said, ‘the economic life of a non -socialist society consists of millions of relations or flows between individual firms and households. Ve can establish certain theorems about them, but vve can never observe all. 9 The insight into the significance of our institutional ignorance in the economic sphere, and into the methods by vhich ve have learnt to overcome this obstacle, vas in fact the starting point 10 for those ideas which in the present book arc systelnatically applied to a much wider field. It will be one of our chief contentions that most of the rules of conduct vhich govern our action s, and lnost of the institutions which arise out of this regularity, are adaptations to the impossibility of anyone taking conscious account of all the particular facts which enter into the order of society. vVe shall see, in particular, that the possibility of justice rests on this necessary limitation of our factual knowledge, and that insight into the nature of justice is therefore denied to all those constructivists  ·ho habitually argue on the assulnption of omniscience.Another consequence of this basic fact vhich must be stressed here is that only in the small groups of primitive society can collaboration betveen the members rest largely on the circumstance that at anyone moment they will know more or less the same particular 13 R EASON AND EVOLUTION circulnstances. SOl1le wise men 111ay be better at interpreting the immediately perceived circumstances or at remembering things in rClnote places unkndvvn to the others. But the concrete events vhich the individuals encounter i n their daily pursuits will be very much the same for all, and they will act together because the events they know and the objectives at which they aim are more or less the same.The situation is wholly different in the Great 11 or Open Society where millions of men interact and where civilization as we know it has developed. Econon1ics has long stressed the ‘division of labour' which such a situation involves. But it has laid much less stress on the fragmentation of knowledge, on the fact that each Inember of society can have only a small fraction of the knowledge possessed by all, and that each is therefore ignorant of most of the facts on which the working of society rests. Yet it is the utilization of much more knowledge than anyone can possess, and therefore the fact that each moves within a coherent structure most of whose deterlninants are unknown to him, that constitutes the distinctive feature of all advanced civilizations.In civilized society it is indeed not so much the greater knowledge that the individual can acquire, as the greater benefit he receives from the knovledge possessed by others, which is the cause of his ability to pursue an infinitely wider range of ends than merely the satisfaction of his most pressing physical needs. Indeed, a ‘civilized' individual may be very ignorant, more ignorant than many a savage, and yet greatly benefit from the civilization